SIMULATORS :
AI2
BlueStacks - (Run Android / Google Apps In BlueStacks)
Cisco Packet Tracer - (Simulator Entire Networks And More)
Emupedia (Online)
GNS3 - (Run Router / Switch IOS And More)
iPadian
EMULATORS (Online - In Your Web Browser) :
EmuOS - (This Is One Of The Best, Lots Of Games & Apps)
Windows 93 - (This Is One Of The Best, Very Funny)
TheOldNet.Com (90's Internet Browsing - Great For Retro Devices)
Amiga Workbench Simulator
Atari ST
OS/2
Windows 95
Windows 3.1 with CD-ROM
Windows 3.1
Windows 1.0
QNX
Macintosh System 7
EMULATORS (Offline - Download And Install) :
Amiga (WinUAE)
Amstrad CPC (Arnold CPC)
Amstrad CPC (Arnold v1.7.6)
Anbox
Commodore 64 (VICE)
Sinclair ZX Spectrum (SPIN)
VIRTUALIZATION SOFTWARE :
Boot Camp
DOS Box
Gnome Boxes
Hyper-V
KVM (KVM hypervisor)
Parallels (Run Windows On Mac, Without Rebooting)
Proxmox VE
QEMU (Quick Emulator)
Red Hat Virtualization
Virtual Box
Virt Manager (Virtual Machine Manager)
VM Monitor (Solarwinds)
VMware Fusion For Mac
VMware Workstation Player
Virtualization Manager
3D SCANNER / PHOTO GRAMMETRY (PC) :
3DF ZEPHYR
Agisoft Metashape
Colmap
Ethan Makes 3D Scanner App
MicMac
Meshroom
Open MVG
Regard3D
Trnio
Visual SFM
3D SCANNER / PHOTO GRAMMETRY (MOBILE) :
Bevel
itSeez3D (Requiers An iPad / iPhone)
Scann3d
Qlone
ReCap Pro
Trnio
USB PORT TYPES AND SPEEDS :
Image Credit: /u/luke_in_the_sky
Image Credit: Sweetwater.com
Image Credit: Anthony Matabaro
1U VS 2U :
| 1U VS 2U - What Does The "U" Refer To? |
The "U" in any server description is short for "RU", which stands for
Rack Unit. This is the standardized designation for the form factor
of the server. |
| Rack Units | Height (in) | Height (cm) |
| 1U | 1.75″ | 4.4 cm |
| 2U | 3.5″ | 8.9 cm |
| 3U | 5.25″ | 13.3 cm |
| 4U | 7″ | 17.78 cm |
| All rackmount servers are 19" in width. |
DIFFERENT RAID LEVALS TYPES :
| RAID TYPE | DESCRIPTION |
| RAID | Redundant Array of Independent Disks |
| RAID (No RAID) | If your device only has one HDD / SSD, then you
can not use RAID.
If downtime and data loss are not a big concern,
then no RAID is fine. |
| RAID 0 | Trade off.
If data loss is not an issue but performance is
essential then RADI 0 is suitable. |
| RAID 1 | High uptime & increased performance of backups.
An inexpensive way to add data redundancy and
or improve read speeds. |
| RAID 2 | RAID 2 is considered obsolete.
RAID 2 is a technique that stripes data at the bit
level using a Hamming code to detect errors.
Because the error correction codes in today's
hard disk drives use Hamming code, RAID 2 is
now considered obsolete. |
| RAID 3 | RAID 3 works as RAID 0 does
RAID 3 uses byte level stripping, it also uses an
additional disk in the array. It is used to store
checksums and it supports a special processor
in parity codes calculating, this has lead to some
people terming it “the parity disk”. |
| RAID 4 | RAID 4 is a RAID configuration that uses a
dedicated parity disk and block level
striping across multiple disks. Because
data is striped in RAID 4, the records can
be read from any disk. |
| RAID 5 / 6 | Good for Web servers with a requirement for high
read speeds or very large storage arrays as a
single object. RADI 5 / 6 will perform very poorly
when it comes to writing speeds, slower
than RAID 1. |
| RAID 7 | RAID 7 is a trademarked RAID level owned by the
now defunct Storage Computer Corp. ... RAID 7 is
based on RAID 3 and RAID 4, but adds caching.
The commercial implementation incorporates
proprietary disk array hardware with a real-time
embedded operating system to control disk drive
access and data flow to host interfaces. |
| RAID 8 | Unable to locate any information on RAID 8 |
| RAID 9 | Unable to locate any information on RAID 9 |
| RAID 10 | Best Balanced Option.
Generally considered a good all around option
for providing additional read and write speed
and additional redundancy. |
USEFUL IP ADDRESS :
| IP Address (ping) | Name (nslookup) | Purpose |
| 1.1.1.1 | one.one.one.one | Cloudflare's DNS resolver,
hides your DNS requests. |
| 4.2.2.2 | b.resolvers.Level3.net | Level 3's public DNS service. |
| 8.8.8.8 | dns.google | Google's public DNS service. |
| 9.9.9.9 | dns9.quad9.net | Public DNS resolver that
blocks access to malware
infected websites. |
| 9.9.9.10 | dns10.quad9.net | A free, recursive, anycast
DNS provides end users
With security protection,
high performance and
privacy. |
| 71.14.2.158 | 071-014-002-158.biz.spectrum.com | Video Conferencing (VC) Test |
| 127.0.0.1 | localhost.localdomain | Test the IP Stack
on a local host |
COMMON PORT NUMBERS :
| Port Number | Protocol / Info |
| 20 | File Transfer Protocol (FTP) |
| 21 | File Transfer Protocol (FTP) |
| 22 | SSH |
| 23 | Telnet |
| 25 | Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) |
| 50 | IPSec |
| 51 | IPSec |
| 67 | Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) |
| 68 | Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) |
| 80 | HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) |
| 88 | HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) |
| 110 | Post Office Protocol (POP3) |
| 123 | Network Time Protocol (NTP) |
| 389 | Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) |
| 443 | HTTP with Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) |
| 513 | Rlogin |
| 8081 | TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) |
| 989 | FTP over SSL/TLS (Implicit mode) |
| 990 | FTP over SSL/TLS (Implicit mode) |
| 9090 | UDP (User Datagram Protocol) |
| 9100 | TCP port used for printing |
| 0 - 1023 | Assigned to common protocols & services. |
| 1024 - 49151 | Registered ports assigned by ICANN to specific services. |
| 49152 -65 535 | Dynamic (private, high) ports. |
COMMON ACRONYMS TECH:
| Acronym | Meaning |
AD
| Active Directory
Active Directory is a directory service developed
by Microsoft for Windows domain networks.
It is included in most Windows Server operating
systems as a set of processes and services. |
| AAD | Azure Active Directory
Azure Active Directory (Azure AD or AAD) is
Microsoft's enterprise cloud-based identity
and access management (IAM) solution.
Azure AD is the backbone of the Office 365
system, and it can sync with on-premise
Active Directory and provide authentication
to other cloud-based systems via OAuth |
| LDAP | Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
The Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
is an open, vendor neutral, industry standard
application protocol for accessing and
maintaining distributed directory information
services over an Internet Protocol network. |
| MMC | Microsoft Management Console
Microsoft Management Console is a
component of Windows 2000 and its
successors that provides system
administrators and advanced users an
interface for configuring and monitoring
the system. |
| SCOM | System Centre Operations Manager
System Center Operations Manager is a cross
platform data center monitoring system for
operating systems and hypervisors. It uses a
single interface that shows state, health and
performance information of computer systems. |
| SCCM | System Centre Configuration Manager
Microsoft Endpoint Configuration Manager
(Configuration Manager, also known as
ConfigMgror MEMCM), formerly
System Center Configuration Manager
(SCCM) and Systems Management Server
(SMS) is a systems management software
product developed by Microsoft for
managing large groups of computers running
Windows NT, Windows Embedded, macOS
(OS X), Linux or UNIX, as well as Windows
Phone, Symbian, iOS and Android mobile
operating systems. Configuration Manager
provides remote control, patch management,
software distribution, operating system
deployment, network access protection and
hardware and software |
| UEFI | Unified Extensible Firmware Interface
The UEFI Interface is a specification that defines a
software interface between an operating system
and platform firmware. |
| MIPS | Millions Of Instructions Per Second
Instructions per second, in most modern
computers it is now in the millions hence MIPS
as opposed to just IPS is a measure of a
computer's processor speed. For complex
instruction set computers, different instructions
take different amounts of time, so the value
measured depends on the instruction mix; even
for comparing processors in the same family the
IPS measurement can be problematic. |
| FLOPS | Floating Point Operations Per Second
In computing, floating point operations per second
is a measure of computer performance, useful in
fields of scientific computations that require floating
point calculations. For such cases it is a more accurate
measure than measuring instructions per second |
| TPI | Tracks Per Inch
TPI is the number of tracks a disk can hold.
For example, a 5.25 inch floppy disk
(double density) has 48 TPI, a high density
3.5 inch disk has 135 TPI, and hard drives
(HDDs) have much higher TPI count,
far into the thousands. |
| TTL | Time To Live
Time to live or hop limit is a mechanism
that limits the lifespan or lifetime of data
in a computer or network. TTL may be
implemented as a counter or timestamp
attached to or embedded in the data. Once
the prescribed event count or timespan
has elapsed, data is discarded or revalidated. |
| PSTN | Public Switched Telephone Network
The PSTN provides infrastructure and
services for public telecommunication.
The PSTN is the aggregate of the
world's circuit switched telephone
networks that are operated by national,
regional, or local telephony operators.
These consist of telephone lines, fiber
optic cables, microwave transmission
links, cellular networks, communications
satellites, and undersea telephone cables,
all interconnected by switching
centers which allow most telephones to
communicate with each other.
Originally a network of fixed line analog
telephone systems, the PSTN is now almost
entirely digital in its core network and
includes mobile and other networks, as well
as fixed telephones. |
| PBX | Private Branch eXchange
A PBX system is a multiline telephone system
typically used in business environments,
encompassing systems ranging in technology
from the key telephone system (KTS) to the
private branch exchange (PBX).
A business telephone system differs from an
installation of several telephones with multiple
central office (CO) lines in that the CO lines used
are directly controllable in key telephone systems
from multiple telephone stations, and that such a
system often provides additional features related
to call handling. Business telephone systems are
often broadly classified into key telephone systems,
and private branch exchanges, but many hybrid
systems exist. |
COMMON ACRONYMS ORGANISATIONS :
| Acronym | Meaning |
| ACTA | Administrative Council For Terminal Attachments
The ACTA is an open organization
established by the FCC and jointly
sponsored by the Alliance for
Telecommunications Industry
Solutions (ATIS) and the
Telecommunications Industry
Association (TIA). The mission of
the ACTA is to:
Adopt technical criteria and to act as the
clearing house, publishing technical criteria
for terminal equipment
(Part 68 Compliance/scope C) developed by
ANSI‐accredited standards development
organizations; and establish and maintain a
registration database of equipment
approved as compliant with the
technical criteria. |
| EIA | Electronics Industries Alliance
The Electronic Industries Alliance
(EIA; until 1997 Electronic Industries
Association) was an American standards
and trade organization (founded in 1924)
composed as an alliance of trade
associations for electronics
manufacturers in the United States.
They developed standards to ensure the
equipment of different manufacturers was
compatible and interchangeable. It is now
Dormant, pending merger with National
Electronic Distributors Association,
rebranded into Electronic Components
Industry Association. It's successor is the
Electronic Components Industry Association
(ECIA), see Global Standards Collaboration
(GSC)
|
| ETA | Electronics Technicians Association
The ETA International® is a US-based NPO
501(c)(6) trade association founded in 1978.
The association provides certifications in
industries such as basic electronics, fiber
optics and data cabling, renewable energy,
information technology, photonics and
precision optics, customer service,
biomedical, avionics, wireless communications
radar, and smart home. ETA is also one of the
12 COLEMs (See COLEMS) for the U.S. FCC
(See FCC) testing. ETA works with technicians,
educators, and military personnel. ETA also
partners with companies such as Motorola
Solutions to provide certification to
their employees. |
| FCC | Federal Communications Commission
The FCC is an independent agency of the
United States government that regulates
communications by radio, television, wire,
satellite, and cable across the United States.
Although a US organisation, its policies and
recommendations are often adopted by other
nations, such as the UK. |
| GSC | Global Standards Collaboration
The GSC was originally the "Interregional
Telecommunications Standards conference (ITSC)
back in 1990. This was an initiative of the T1
Committee of the United States who invited the
other founding partner organizations ITU-T, ETSI
and the Japanese TTC to the first ISC Meeting in
Fredericksburg, VA. The goal was set by the
“spirit of Melbourne”, stemming from a CCITT
Plenary Assembly, to find a way of cooperation
between Participating Standards Organizations
(PSOs) from different regions of the world in
order to facilitate global standardization within
the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
The ITSC focussed its work on fixed
telecommunications networks.
After a few years, the ITSC, as a conference,
became too large and was therefore reduced to
the Global Standards Collaboration (GSC), with
delegations limited to a reasonable size (10 maximum).
The first GSC meeting was held in 1994 in Melbourne,
Australia. Around the same time, it was decided to
expand the scope to cover Radio Communications with
the addition of a parallel set of Global Radio
Standardization (RAST) meeting, the first one being
hosted by ETSI in Nice in October 1994.
Over the course of time, the Australian, Canadian,
Korean and Chinese national standards organizations
joined bringing the number of Participating Standards
Organizations to ten. Observers from other standards
related organizations and Fora are also invited to participate.
In November 2001, it was decided to rename GSC
as GTSC (where T = Telecoms) and RAST as GRSC
(where R = Radio) and to use the term GSC an overall
"umbrella" for the combined plenary sessions.
|
| IEEE | Institute Of Electrical And Electronics Engineers
The IEEE is a professional association for
electronic engineering and electrical
engineering (and associated disciplines) It was
formed in 1963 from the amalgamation of the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers and
the Institute of Radio Engineers.
Due to its expansion of scope into so many
related fields, it is simply referred to by the
letters I-E-E-E (pronounced I-triple-E), except on
legal business documents. Its objectives are the
educational and technical advancement of
electrical and electronic engineering,
telecommunications, computer engineering
and similar disciplines |
| IESG | Internet Engineering Steering Group
The IESG is responsible for the technical
management of IETF activities and the Internet
standards process. The IESG administers the
process according to the rules and procedures
that have been ratified by the Internet Society
trustees [RFC 2026]. It is directly responsible for
the actions associated with entry into and
movement along the Internet "standards track,"
including final approval of specifications as
Internet Standards.
|
| IETF | Internet Engineering Task Force
IETF is an open standards organization, which
develops and promotes voluntary Internet
standards, in particular, the standards that
comprise the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP).
It has no formal membership roster or
membership requirements. All participants
and managers are volunteers, though their
work is usually funded by their employers
or sponsors. |
| IEC | International Electrotechnical Commission
The IEC is an international standards organization
that prepares and publishes international
standards for all electrical, electronic and related
technologies, collectively known as
"electrotechnology". |
| NICEIC | National Inspection Council for Electrical Installation Contracting
NICEIC is one of several organisations which
regulates the training and work of electrical
enterprises in the UK. NICEIC is one of several
providers given Government approval to offer
Competent Person Schemes to oversee electrical
work within the electrical industry in the UK. |
| OFFCOM | Office Of Communications
Ofcom is the government-approved regulatory
and competition authority for the broadcasting,
telecommunications and postal industries of the
United Kingdom. Ofcom has wide ranging
powers across the television, radio, telecoms
and postal sectors. It has a statutory duty to
represent the interests of citizens and consumers
by promoting competition and protecting the
public from harmful or offensive material.
Some of the main areas Ofcom presides over
are licensing, research, codes and policies,
complaints, competition and protecting the radio
spectrum from abuse (e.g. pirate radio stations).
The regulator was initially established by the
Office of Communications Act 2002 and received
its full authority from the Communications Act
2003 the creation of Ofcom was announced in
the Queen's Speech to the UK Parliament, in
June 2001. The new body, which would replace
several existing authorities, was conceived as a
"super-regulator" to oversee media channels
that were rapidly converging through digital
transmission. Ofcom launched on 29
December 2003, formally inheriting the duties
that had previously been the responsibility of
five different regulators:
The Broadcasting Standards Commission
The Independent Television Commission
The Office of Telecommunications (Oftel)
The Radio Authority
The Radiocommunications Agency |
| TIA | Telecommunications Industry Association
The TIA (Founded in 1988) is accredited
by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) to develop voluntary,
consensus-based industry standards for
a wide variety of Information and
Communication Technologies products,
and currently represents nearly
400 companies. |
| VESA | Video Electronics Standards Association
VESA is an American technical standards
organization for computer display standards.
The organization was incorporated in California
in July 1989 and has its office in San Jose.
It claims a membership of over 300 companies.
In November 1988, NEC Home Electronics
announced its creation of the association to
develop and promote a Super VGA computer
display standard as a successor to IBM's
proprietary Video Graphics Array (VGA)
display standard. Super VGA enabled graphics
display resolutions up to 800×600 pixels,
compared to VGA's maximum resolution of
640×480 pixels an increase of 36%.
The organization has since issued several
additional standards related to computer
video displays. Widely used VESA standards
include DisplayHDR, DisplayPort, and
Flat Display Mounting Interface (FDMI) AKA a
VESA Mount. |
COMMON ACRONYMS & NAMES COMPANYS:
| Acronym | Meaning |
| 3M | Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Company
Founded by
Dr. J. Danley Budd
Henry. S. Bryan
William A. McGonagle
John Dwan
Hermon W. Cable
Founded in 1902 |
| Acer Inc | Acer Inc
Romanized name
Hóngqí Gǔfèn Yǒuxiàn Gōngsī
Founded by
Stan Shih
Carolyn Yeh
George Huang
Founded in 1976 |
| Asus (Huáshuò in Chinese) | Pegasus
According to the company website,
the name Asus originates from Pegasus,
the winged horse of Greek mythology
Romanized name
Huáshuò Diànnǎo Gǔfèn Yǒuxiàn Gōngsī
Founded by
Ted Hsu, M.T. Liao,
Wayne Tsiah, T.H. Tung,
Luca D.M
Founded in 1989 |
| Dell | Dell (Formerly PC's Limited 1984-1987)
Is named after the company founder
Michael Saul Dell
Founded in 1984 |
| HP | Hewlett-Packard
Which was named after the founder's
Founded by
Bill Hewlett,
David Packard
Founded in 1939 |
| MSI | Micro-Star International
Founded by
Joseph Hsu, Jeans Huang,
Frank Lin, Kenny Yu,
Henry Lu
Founded in 1986 |
| NEC | Nippon Electric Company, Limited
Romanized name
Nippon Denki Kabushiki Gaisha
Founded by
Kunihiko Iwadare,
Takeshiro Maeda
Founded in 1899 |
| RS Components | Radiospares Components
Founded by
J.H. Waring,
P.M. Sebestyen
Founded in 1937 |
THE OSI MODEL :
| OSI LAYER | DESCRIPTION |
| OSI MODEL | Open Systems Interconnection Model |
| Application Lay | The application layer is the user facing part of
the system, in this case, the GUI / CLI. It allows
the user to see and interact with the device and
its various applications such as Outlook, Google
Chrome, Teams, Games, CMD and any other
application or GUI / CLI the users can access.
This is the layer most people are familiar with in
their daily use of their device. |
| Presentation Layer | The presentation layer formats or translates data
for the application layer based on the syntax or
semantics that the application accepts. Because
of this, it is at times also called the syntax layer.
This layer can also handle the encryption and
decryption required by the application layer. |
| Session Layer | The session layer controls the conversations
between different computers. A session or
the connection between machines is set up,
managed, and terminated at layer 5. Session
layer services also include authentication
and reconnections. |
| Transport Layer | The transport layer manages the delivery and
error checking of data packets. It regulates
the size, sequencing, and ultimately the
transfer of data between systems and
hosts. One of the most common examples o
the transport layer is TCP or the Transmission
Control Protocol. |
| Network Layer | The network layer is responsible for receiving
frames from the data link layer and delivering
them to their intended destinations based on
the addresses contained inside the frame.
The network layer finds the destination by
using logical addresses, such as
IP (internet protocol). At this layer, routers
are a crucial component used to quite literally
route information where it needs to go
between networks. |
| Data Link Layer | At the data link layer, directly connected
nodes are used to perform node to node
data transfer where data is packaged into
frames. The data link layer also corrects errors
that may have occurred at the physical layer.
The data link layer encompasses two sub-layers
of its own. The first, media access control
(MAC), provides flow control and multiplexing
for device transmissions over a network.
The second, the logical link control (LLC),
provides flow and error control over the
physical medium as well as identifies
line protocols. |
| Physical Layer | The lowest layer of the OSI Model is concerned
with electrically or optically transmitting raw
unstructured data bits across the network from
the physical layer of the sending device to the
physical layer of the receiving device. It can
include specifications such as voltages, pin
layout, cabling, and radio frequencies. At
the physical layer, one might find
“physical” resources such as network
hubs, cabling, repeaters, network
adapters or modems. |
THE TCP/IP MODEL :
| TCP/IP LAYER | DESCRIPTION |
| TCP/IP MODEL | Open Systems Interconnection Model |
| Application | This layer provides applications with standardized
data exchange. Its protocols include HTTP, FTP,
Post Office Protocol 3, Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol and Simple Network Management
Protocol. At the application layer, the payload is
the actual application data. |
| Transport | This layer is responsible for maintaining end
to end communications across the network.
TCP handles communications between hosts
and provides flow control, multiplexing, and
reliability. The transport protocols include TCP
and User Datagram Protocol, which is
sometimes used instead of TCP for special
purposes. |
| Network | This layer is also called the internet layer,
deals with packets and connects independent
networks to transport the packets across
network boundaries. The network layer
protocols are IP and Internet Control
Message Protocol, which is used for
error reporting. |
| Network Interface | Also known as the network interface layer or
data link layer, consists of protocols that operate
only on a link -- the network component that
interconnects nodes or hosts in the network.
The protocols in this lowest layer include Ethernet
for local area networks and Address Resolution
Protocol. |
ASCII CONTROL CHARACTERS (NON PRINTABLE) :
| ASCII Code Number | Control Character |
| ASCII code 00 | NULL ( Null character ) |
| ASCII code 01 | SOH ( Start of Header ) |
| ASCII code 02 | STX ( Start of Text ) |
| ASCII code 03 | ETX ( End of Text, hearts card suit ) |
| ASCII code 04 | EOT ( End of Transmission, diamonds card suit ) |
| ASCII code 05 | ENQ ( Enquiry, clubs card suit ) |
| ASCII code 06 | ACK ( Acknowledgement, spade card suit ) |
| ASCII code 07 | BEL ( Bell ) |
| ASCII code 08 | BS ( Backspace ) |
| ASCII code 09 | HT ( Horizontal Tab ) |
| ASCII code 10 | LF ( Line feed ) |
| ASCII code 11 | VT ( Vertical Tab, male symbol, symbol for Mars ) |
| ASCII code 12 | FF ( Form feed, female symbol, symbol for Venus ) |
| ASCII code 13 | CR ( Carriage return ) |
| ASCII code 14 | SO ( Shift Out ) |
| ASCII code 15 | SI ( Shift In ) |
| ASCII code 16 | DLE ( Data link escape ) |
| ASCII code 17 | DC1 ( Device control 1 ) |
| ASCII code 18 | DC1 ( Device control 2 ) |
| ASCII code 19 | DC1 ( Device control 3 ) |
| ASCII code 20 | DC1 ( Device control 4 ) |
| ASCII code 21 | NAK ( NAK Negative-acknowledge ) |
| ASCII code 22 | SYN ( Synchronous idle ) |
| ASCII code 23 | ETB ( End of trans. block ) |
| ASCII code 24 | CAN ( Cancel ) |
| ASCII code 25 | EM ( End of medium ) |
| ASCII code 26 | SUB ( Substitute ) |
| ASCII code 27 | ESC ( Escape ) |
| ASCII code 28 | FS ( File separator ) |
| ASCII code 29 | GS ( Group separator ) |
| ASCII code 30 | RS ( Record separator ) |
| ASCII code 31 | US ( Unit separator ) |
| ASCII code 127 | DEL ( Delete ) |
ASCII PRINTABLE CHARACTERS :
| ASCII CODE NUMBER | Extended Characters |
| ASCII code 128 | Ç ( Majuscule C-cedilla |
| ASCII code 129 | ü ( letter u with umlaut or diaeresis , u-umlaut ) |
| ASCII code 130 | é ( letter e with acute accent or e-acute ) |
| ASCII code 131 | â ( letter a with circumflex accent or a-circumflex ) |
| ASCII code 132 | ä ( letter a with umlaut or diaeresis , a-umlaut ) |
| ASCII code 133 | à ( letter a with grave accent ) |
| ASCII code 134 | å ( letter a with a ring ) |
| ASCII code 135 | ç ( Minuscule c-cedilla ) |
| ASCII code 136 | ê ( letter e with circumflex accent or e-circumflex ) |
| ASCII code 137 | ë ( letter e with umlaut or diaeresis ; e-umlauts ) |
| ASCII code 138 | è ( letter e with grave accent ) |
| ASCII code 139 | ï ( letter i with umlaut or diaeresis ; i-umlaut ) |
| ASCII code 140 | î ( letter i with circumflex accent or i-circumflex ) |
| ASCII code 141 | ì ( letter i with grave accent ) |
| ASCII code 142 | Ä ( letter A with umlaut or diaeresis ; A-umlaut ) |
| ASCII code 143 | Å ( Capital letter A with a ring ) |
| ASCII code 144 | É ( Capital letter E with acute accent or E-acute ) |
| ASCII code 145 | æ ( Latin diphthong ae in lowercase ) |
| ASCII code 146 | Æ ( Latin diphthong AE in uppercase ) |
| ASCII code 147 | ô ( letter o with circumflex accent or o-circumflex ) |
| ASCII code 148 | ö ( letter o with umlaut or diaeresis ; o-umlaut ) |
| ASCII code 149 | ò ( letter o with grave accent ) |
| ASCII code 150 | û ( letter u with circumflex accent or u-circumflex ) |
| ASCII code 151 | ù ( letter u with grave accent ) |
| ASCII code 152 | ÿ ( Lowercase letter y with diaeresis ) |
| ASCII code 153 | Ö ( Letter O with umlaut or diaeresis ; O-umlaut ) |
| ASCII code 154 | Ü ( Letter U with umlaut or diaeresis ; U-umlaut ) |
| ASCII code 155 | ø ( Lowercase slashed zero or empty set ) |
| ASCII code 156 | £ ( Pound sign ; symbol for the pound sterling ) |
| ASCII code 157 | Ø ( Uppercase slashed zero or empty set ) |
| ASCII code 158 | × ( Multiplication sign ) |
| ASCII code 159 | ƒ ( Function sign ; f with hook sign ; florin sign ) |
| ASCII code 160 | á ( Lowercase letter a with acute accent or a-acute ) |
| ASCII code 161 | í ( Lowercase letter i with acute accent or i-acute ) |
| ASCII code 162 | ó ( Lowercase letter o with acute accent or o-acute ) |
| ASCII code 163 | ú ( Lowercase letter u with acute accent or u-acute ) |
| ASCII code 164 | ñ ( eñe, enie, spanish letter enye, lowercase n with tilde ) |
| ASCII code 165 | Ñ ( Spanish letter enye, uppercase N with tilde, EÑE, enie ) |
| ASCII code 166 | ª ( feminine ordinal indicator ) |
| ASCII code 167 | º ( masculine ordinal indicator ) |
| ASCII code 168 | ¿ ( Inverted question marks ) |
| ASCII code 169 | ® ( Registered trademark symbol ) |
| ASCII code 170 | ¬ ( Logical negation symbol ) |
| ASCII code 171 | ½ ( One half ) |
| ASCII code 172 | ¼ ( Quarter, one fourth ) |
| ASCII code 173 | ¡ ( Inverted exclamation marks ) |
| ASCII code 174 | « ( Angle quotes, guillemets, right-pointing quotation mark ) |
| ASCII code 175 | » ( Guillemets, angle quotes, left-pointing quotation marks ) |
| ASCII code 176 | ░ ( Graphic character, low density dotted ) |
| ASCII code 177 | ▒ ( Graphic character, medium density dotted ) |
| ASCII code 178 | ▓ ( Graphic character, high density dotted ) |
| ASCII code 179 | │ ( Box drawing character single vertical line ) |
| ASCII code 180 | ┤ ( Box drawing character single vertical and left line ) |
| ASCII code 181 | Á ( Capital letter A with acute accent or A-acute ) |
| ASCII code 182 | Â ( Letter A with circumflex accent or A-circumflex ) |
| ASCII code 183 | À ( Letter A with grave accent ) |
| ASCII code 184 | © ( Copyright symbol ) |
| ASCII code 185 | ╣ ( Box drawing character double line vertical and left ) |
| ASCII code 186 | ║ ( Box drawing character double vertical line ) |
| ASCII code 187 | ╗ ( Box drawing character double line upper right corner ) |
| ASCII code 188 | ╝ ( Box drawing character double line lower right corner ) |
| ASCII code 189 | ¢ ( Cent symbol ) |
| ASCII code 190 | ¥ ( YEN and YUAN sign ) |
| ASCII code 191 | ┐ ( Box drawing character single line upper right corner ) |
| ASCII code 192 | └ ( Box drawing character single line lower left corner ) |
| ASCII code 193 | ┴ ( Box drawing character single line horizontal and up ) |
| ASCII code 194 | ┬ ( Box drawing character single line horizontal down ) |
| ASCII code 195 | ├ ( Box drawing character single line vertical and right ) |
| ASCII code 196 | ─ ( Box drawing character single horizontal line ) |
| ASCII code 197 | ┼ ( Box drawing character single line horizontal vertical ) |
| ASCII code 198 | ã ( Lowercase letter a with tilde or a-tilde ) |
| ASCII code 199 | Ã ( Capital letter A with tilde or A-tilde ) |
| ASCII code 200 | ╚ ( Box drawing character double line lower left corner ) |
| ASCII code 201 | ╔ ( Box drawing character double line upper left corner ) |
| ASCII code 202 | ╩ ( Box drawing character double line horizontal and up ) |
| ASCII code 203 | ╦ ( Box drawing character double line horizontal down ) |
| ASCII code 204 | ╠ ( Box drawing character double line vertical and right ) |
| ASCII code 205 | ═ ( Box drawing character double horizontal line ) |
| ASCII code 206 | ╬ ( Box drawing character double line horizontal vertical ) |
| ASCII code 207 | ¤ ( Generic currency sign ) |
| ASCII code 208 | ð ( Lowercase letter eth ) |
| ASCII code 209 | Ð ( Capital letter Eth ) |
| ASCII code 210 | Ê ( Letter E with circumflex accent or E-circumflex ) |
| ASCII code 211 | Ë ( Letter E with umlaut or diaeresis, E-umlaut ) |
| ASCII code 212 | È ( Capital letter E with grave accent ) |
| ASCII code 213 | ı ( Lowercase dot less i ) |
| ASCII code 214 | Í ( Capital letter I with acute accent or I-acute ) |
| ASCII code 215 | Î ( Letter I with circumflex accent or I-circumflex ) |
| ASCII code 216 | Ï ( Letter I with umlaut or diaeresis ; I-umlaut ) |
| ASCII code 217 | ┘ ( Box drawing character single line lower right corner ) |
| ASCII code 218 | ┌ ( Box drawing character single line upper left corner ) |
| ASCII code 219 | █ ( Block, graphic character ) |
| ASCII code 220 | ▄ ( Bottom half block ) |
| ASCII code 221 | ¦ ( Vertical broken bar ) |
| ASCII code 222 | Ì ( Capital letter I with grave accent ) |
| ASCII code 223 | ▀ ( Top half block ) |
| ASCII code 224 | Ó ( Capital letter O with acute accent or O-acute ) |
| ASCII code 225 | ß ( Letter Eszett ; scharfes S or sharp S ) |
| ASCII code 226 | Ô ( Letter O with circumflex accent or O-circumflex ) |
| ASCII code 227 | Ò ( Capital letter O with grave accent ) |
| ASCII code 228 | õ ( Lowercase letter o with tilde or o-tilde ) |
| ASCII code 229 | õ ( Lowercase letter o with tilde or o-tilde ) |
| ASCII code 230 | µ ( Lowercase letter Mu ; micro sign or micron ) |
| ASCII code 231 | þ ( Lowercase letter Thorn ) |
| ASCII code 232 | Þ ( Capital letter Thorn ) |
| ASCII code 233 | Ú ( Capital letter U with acute accent or U-acute ) |
| ASCII code 234 | Û ( Letter U with circumflex accent or U-circumflex ) |
| ASCII code 235 | Ù ( Capital letter U with grave accent ) |
| ASCII code 236 | ý ( Lowercase letter y with acute accent ) |
| ASCII code 237 | Ý ( Capital letter Y with acute accent ) |
| ASCII code 238 | ¯ ( Macron symbol ) |
| ASCII code 239 | ´ ( Acute accent ) |
| ASCII code 240 | ≡ ( Congruence relation symbol ) |
| ASCII code 241 | ± ( Plus-minus sign ) |
| ASCII code 242 | ‗ ( underline or underscore ) |
| ASCII code 243 | ¾ ( three quarters, three-fourths ) |
| ASCII code 244 | ¶ ( Paragraph sign or pilcrow ; end paragraph mark ) |
| ASCII code 245 | § ( Section sign ) |
| ASCII code 246 | ÷ ( The division sign ; Obelus ) |
| ASCII code 247 | ¸ ( cedilla ) |
| ASCII code 248 | ° ( Degree symbol ) |
| ASCII code 249 | ¨ ( Diaresis ) |
| ASCII code 250 | · ( Interpunct or space dot ) |
| ASCII code 251 | ¹ ( Superscript one, exponent 1, first power ) |
| ASCII code 252 | ³ ( Superscript three, exponent 3, cube, third power ) |
| ASCII code 253 | ² ( Superscript two, exponent 2, square, second power ) |
| ASCII code 254 | ■ ( black square ) |
| ASCII code 255 | nbsp ( Non-breaking space or no-break space ) |
ASCII Extended Characters :
| ASCII CODE NUMBER | PRINTABLE CHARACTERS |
| ASCII code 32 | space ( Space ) |
| ASCII code 33 | ! ( Exclamation mark ) |
| ASCII code 34 | " ( Double quotes ; Quotation mark ; speech marks ) |
| ASCII code 35 | # ( Number sign ) |
| ASCII code 36 | $ ( Dollar sign ) |
| ASCII code 37 | % ( Percent sign ) |
| ASCII code 38 | & ( Ampersand ) |
| ASCII code 39 | ' ( Single quote or Apostrophe ) |
| ASCII code 40 | ( ( round brackets or parentheses, opening round bracket ) |
| ASCII code 41 | ) ( parentheses or round brackets, closing parentheses ) |
| ASCII code 42 | * ( Asterisk ) |
| ASCII code 43 | + ( Plus sign ) |
| ASCII code 44 | , ( Comma ) |
| ASCII code 45 | - ( Hyphen , minus sign ) |
| ASCII code 46 | . ( Dot, full stop ) |
| ASCII code 47 | / ( Slash , forward slash , fraction bar , division slash ) |
| ASCII code 48 | 0 ( number zero ) |
| ASCII code 49 | 1 ( number one ) |
| ASCII code 50 | 2 ( number two ) |
| ASCII code 51 | 3 ( number three ) |
| ASCII code 52 | 4 ( number four ) |
| ASCII code 53 | 5 ( number five ) |
| ASCII code 54 | 6 ( number six ) |
| ASCII code 55 | 7 ( number seven ) |
| ASCII code 56 | 8 ( number eight ) |
| ASCII code 57 | 9 ( number nine ) |
| ASCII code 58 | : ( Colon ) |
| ASCII code 59 | ; ( Semicolon ) |
| ASCII code 60 | < ( Less-than sign ) |
| ASCII code 61 | !ERROR! undefined variable 'equalssign' |
| ASCII code 62 | > ( Greater-than sign ; Inequality ) |
| ASCII code 63 | ? ( Question mark ) |
| ASCII code 64 | @ ( At sign ) |
| ASCII code 65 | A ( Capital letter A ) |
| ASCII code 66 | B ( Capital letter B ) |
| ASCII code 67 | C ( Capital letter C ) |
| ASCII code 68 | D ( Capital letter D ) |
| ASCII code 69 | E ( Capital letter E ) |
| ASCII code 70 | E ( Capital letter E ) |
| ASCII code 71 | G ( Capital letter G ) |
| ASCII code 72 | H ( Capital letter H ) |
| ASCII code 73 | I ( Capital letter I ) |
| ASCII code 74 | J ( Capital letter J ) |
| ASCII code 75 | K ( Capital letter K ) |
| ASCII code 76 | L ( Capital letter L ) |
| ASCII code 77 | M ( Capital letter M ) |
| ASCII code 78 | N ( Capital letter N ) |
| ASCII code 79 | O ( Capital letter O ) |
| ASCII code 80 | P ( Capital letter P ) |
| ASCII code 81 | Q ( Capital letter Q ) |
| ASCII code 82 | R ( Capital letter R ) |
| ASCII code 83 | S ( Capital letter S ) |
| ASCII code 84 | T ( Capital letter T ) |
| ASCII code 85 | U ( Capital letter U ) |
| ASCII code 86 | V ( Capital letter V ) |
| ASCII code 87 | W ( Capital letter W ) |
| ASCII code 88 | X ( Capital letter X ) |
| ASCII code 89 | Y ( Capital letter Y ) |
| ASCII code 90 | Z ( Capital letter Z ) |
| ASCII code 91 | [ ( square brackets or box brackets, opening bracket ) |
| ASCII code 92 | \ ( Backslash , reverse slash ) |
| ASCII code 93 | ] ( box brackets or square brackets, closing bracket ) |
| ASCII code 94 | ^ ( Circumflex accent or Caret ) |
| ASCII code 95 | _ ( underscore , understrike , underbar or low line ) |
| ASCII code 96 | ` ( Grave accent ) |
| ASCII code 97 | a ( Lowercase letter a , minuscule a ) |
| ASCII code 98 | b ( Lowercase letter b , minuscule b ) |
| ASCII code 99 | c ( Lowercase letter c , minuscule c ) |
| ASCII code 100 | d ( Lowercase letter d , minuscule d ) |
| ASCII code 101 | e ( Lowercase letter e , minuscule e ) |
| ASCII code 102 | f ( Lowercase letter f , minuscule f ) |
| ASCII code 103 | g ( Lowercase letter g , minuscule g ) |
| ASCII code 104 | h ( Lowercase letter h , minuscule h ) |
| ASCII code 105 | i ( Lowercase letter i , minuscule i ) |
| ASCII code 106 | j ( Lowercase letter j , minuscule j ) |
| ASCII code 107 | k ( Lowercase letter k , minuscule k ) |
| ASCII code 108 | l ( Lowercase letter l , minuscule l ) |
| ASCII code 109 | m ( Lowercase letter m , minuscule m ) |
| ASCII code 110 | n ( Lowercase letter n , minuscule n ) |
| ASCII code 111 | o ( Lowercase letter o , minuscule o ) |
| ASCII code 112 | p ( Lowercase letter p , minuscule p ) |
| ASCII code 113 | q ( Lowercase letter q , minuscule q ) |
| ASCII code 114 | r ( Lowercase letter r , minuscule r ) |
| ASCII code 115 | s ( Lowercase letter s , minuscule s ) |
| ASCII code 116 | t ( Lowercase letter t , minuscule t ) |
| ASCII code 117 | u ( Lowercase letter u , minuscule u ) |
| ASCII code 118 | v ( Lowercase letter v , minuscule v ) |
| ASCII code 119 | w ( Lowercase letter w , minuscule w ) |
| ASCII code 120 | x ( Lowercase letter x , minuscule x ) |
| ASCII code 121 | y ( Lowercase letter y , minuscule y ) |
| ASCII code 122 | z ( Lowercase letter z , minuscule z ) |
| ASCII code 123 | { ( braces or curly brackets, opening braces ) |
| ASCII code 124 | | ( vertical-bar, vbar, vertical line or vertical slash ) |
| ASCII code 125 | } ( curly brackets or braces, closing curly brackets ) |
| ASCII code 126 | ~ ( Tilde ; swung dash ) |
| MICROSOFT WINDOWS TOOLS :
Microsoft - Analyzer - Analyze The Wireless Network Report
Microsoft - Analyzer - Remote Connectivity Analyzer
Microsoft - Anti Spam Message Headers
Microsoft - Attack Simulator In ATP (Online)
Microsoft - Azure - Join (Enroll) Apple Mac To Azure Active Directory (AD)
Microsoft - Office 365 - Licensing Diagnostic Tool
Microsoft - Office 365 - Uninstall Office From A PC Or Laptop
Microsoft - PowerShell - Installing Various Versions
Microsoft - Robocopy (Administration Commands)
Microsoft - Support - Main Page - Sign In To Deal With Warranty Issues
Microsoft - Support - Devices Page - Sign In To Deal With Warranty Issues
Microsoft - Support - Support And Recovery Assistantt Tool (SARA Tool)
Microsoft - Surface - Diagnostic Toolkit
Microsoft - Surface - Warranty Information
Microsoft - Windows 10 Store Apps Uninstaller (Power Shell / Win Forms)
Microsoft - Windows 10 Update Assistant
BENCHMARK - MAINTENANCE - TEST :
CPU-Z
Crystal Disk Info
DiskFresh
Hard Disk Sentinel - Windows
Hard Disk Sentinel - Linux Edition
HD Tune
Open Hardware Monitor
Prime95
Ryzen DRAM Calculator Tool (Helpful With XMP)
SMARTReporter Lite (For HDDs)
WD - 01 - Data Lifeguard Diagnostic For Windows
WD - 02 - Dashboard Utility Available
FREE ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) SOFTWARE :
Accord.NET (.NET Audio And Image Processing Libraries)
Algolia - Search (Build AI Powered Search Engines)
Algolia - Recommend (Build AI Powered recommendation Engine)
Apache Mahout (Distributed Framework For Distributed Framework Data)
DeepFaceLab (Face Swapping In Videos And Images)
EbSynth (Convert Video Footage To Motion Paintings)
Faceswap (Face Swapping In Videos And Images)
GPT-Neo (Generates Texts From A Prompts)
IBM Watson (Answers Questions Asked In Natural Language)
OpenNN (Open Source Neural Networks Library)
Scikit Learn (Tools For Predictive Data Analysis)
Tay (Chat bot) (Decommissioned)
TensorFlow (Create Machine Learning Models)
Torch (Scientific Computing Framework For LuaJIT)
Yanderifier (For Making Deepfake Videos )
Zo (Chat bot) (Decommissioned)
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :
Abourt shutdown, right click "Start" menu, & click "Run", type the below:
shutdown -a |
Reset MFA for Microsoft Oiffcie 365, vist the site below:
https://aka.ms/MFASetup |
Reset OneDrive sync, right click "Start" menu, & click "Run", type the below:
%localappdata%\Microsoft\OneDrive\onedrive.exe /reset |
The location of the Templates folder for Microsoft Office Products:
C:\Users\%user%\AppData\Roaming\Microsoft\Templates |
Outlook sfae mode, right click "Start" menu, & click "Run", type the below:
outlook.exe /safe |
Outlook reset all views to default in 2013 / 2016, right click "Start" menu, & click "Run", type the below:
outlook.exe /cleanviews
|
Outlook reset the navigation pane, right click "Start" menu, & click "Run", type the below:
outlook.exe /resetnavpane |
Outlook repair PST & OST on Windows 10 / 8 / 7 / XP, use the steps below:
1) Open Outlook
2) Open “Task Manager”
3) Select the “Processes” tab from the top of the bar on “Task Manager”
4) Right click on Outlook and choose "Open File Location"
5) Run "scanpst.exe"
|
Silent disk cleanup, right click "Start" menu, & click "Run", type the below:
c:\windows\SYSTEM32\cleanmgr.exe /dDrive
(NB: The placeholder "Drive", represents the drive letter of the hard disk to be cleaned.) |
If you are unable to access a website for whatever reason
(Assuming no issues with your setup/network etc), you can email the
webmaster by sending your email to "webmaster@X.X.X.X". Where
"X.X.X.X" is the IP address of the web page.
To find the IP Address of the webpage, run CMD and type
"ping YYYYYYY.ZZZ" where "YYYYYYYYYY" is the name of the website
and "ZZZ" is the domain name extension such as .com /.uk / .org etc.
For example "matabaro.co.uk" |
To Test The Audio Quality in Bluejeans:
If you are using a web browser type in the below:
https://bluejeans.com/111
If you are using the app, where it says "Enter Meeting ID"
Then type: 111
If you are using video conferencing equipment
Then type in: 111##
To Connect H.323 Or SIP Based Room Systems
To A Bluejeans Meeting.
Dial the IP address "104.238.247.247" for H.323
or the FQDN "meet@bjn.vc" for SIP on your Room System
to get the welcome Interactive Voice Response (IVR). |
VESA Mount:
The Flat Display Mounting Interface (FDMI), also known as
VESA Mounting Interface Standard (MIS) or colloquially as
VESA mount, is a family of standards defined by the
Video Electronics Standards Association for mounting flat panel monitors,
televisions, and other displays to stands or wall mounts. It is implemented
on most modern flat panel monitors and televisions.
|
SI PREFIEXS - METRIC :
| Prefixes |
| Purpose | Larger Quantities Or Whole Units |
| Name | Symbol | Factor | Name |
| yotta | Y | 1024 | Septillion |
| zetta | Z | 1021 | Sextillion |
| exa | E | 1018 | Quintillion |
| peta | P | 1015 | Quadrillion |
| tera | T | 1012 | Trillion |
| giga | G | 109 | Billion |
| mega | M | 106 | Million |
| kilo | k | 103 | Thousand |
| hecto | h | 102 | Hundred |
| deka | da | 101 | Ten |
| | 100 | One |
| Purpose | Smaller Quantities Or Sub Units |
| deci | d | 10-1 | Tenth |
| centi | c | 10-2 | Hundredth |
| milli | m | 10-3 | Thousandth |
| micro | μ | 10-6 | Millionth |
| nano | n | 10-9 | Billionth |
| pico | p | 10-12 | Trillionth |
| femto | f | 10-15 | Quadrillionth |
| atto | a | 10-18 | Quintillionth |
| zepto | z | 10-21 | Sextillionth |
| yocto | y | 10-24 | Septillionth |
SI PREFIEXS - BINARY:
| IEC prefix | Representations |
| Name / Symbol | Base 2 | Base 1024 | Value | Base 10 |
| kibi / Ki | 210 | 10241 | 1024 | ∼ 1.024×103 |
| mebi / Mi | 220 | 10242 | 1048576 | ≈ 1.049×106 |
| gibi / Gi | 230 | 10243 | 1073741824 | ≈ 1.074×109 |
| tebi / Ti | 240 | 10244 | 1.09951E+12 | ≈ 1.100×1012 |
| pebi / Pi | 250 | 10245 | 1.1259E+15 | ≈ 1.126×1015 |
| exbi / Ei | 260 | 10246 | 1.15292E+18 | ≈ 1.153×1018 |
| zebi / Zi | 270 | 10247 | 1.18059E+21 | ≈ 1.181×1021 |
| yobi / Yi | 280 | 10248 | 1.20893E+24 | ≈ 1.209×1024 |
MAXIMUM FILE SIZE ON FORMATTED MEDIA :
| Format | §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ |
NAME = FAT / FAT8
BIT COUNT = 8 Bit
YEAR DEVELOPED = 1977
DEVELOPED BY = Microsoft
MAX FILE SIZE = ? | |
NAME = FAT12
BIT COUNT = 12 Bit
YEAR DEVELOPED = 1980
DEVELOPED BY = Microsoft
MAX FILE SIZE = 16 MB
*With a 4 KB clusters
MAX FILE SIZE = 32 MB*
*With an 8 KB clusters | §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ |
NAME = FAT16
BIT COUNT = 16 Bit
YEAR DEVELOPED = 1984
DEVELOPED BY = Microsoft
MAX FILE SIZE = 2 GB*
*Without LFS
MAX FILE SIZE = 4 GB*
With LFS*
*Long File System
AKA FAT16B | §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ |
NAME = FAT32
BIT COUNT = 32 Bit
YEAR DEVELOPED = 1996
DEVELOPED BY = Microsoft
MAX FILE SIZE = 4GB | §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ |
NAME = exFAT
BIT COUNT = 64 Bit
YEAR DEVELOPED = 2006
DEVELOPED BY = Microsoft
MAX FILE SIZE = 16 EB | §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ |
NAME = VFAT
BIT COUNT = ?
YEAR DEVELOPED = 1995
DEVELOPED BY = Microsoft
MAX FILE SIZE = 2TB*
*With a 512 KB sector size
MAX FILE SIZE = 16TB*
*With a 4 KB sector size
VFAT is an optional extension
for long file names, which can
work on top of any FAT file
system. Volumes using VFAT
long filenames can be read
also by operating systems
not supporting the
VFAT extension. | §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ |
NAME = NTFS
BIT COUNT = 64 Bit
YEAR DEVELOPED = 1993
DEVELOPED BY = Microsoft
MAX FILE SIZE = 16 EB | §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ |
NAME = HFS+
BIT COUNT = 32 Bit
YEAR DEVELOPED = 1998
DEVELOPED BY = Apple
MAX FILE SIZE = 2 GB*
Using HFS
MAX FILE SIZE = 8 EB*
Using HFS+ | §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ |
NAME = APFS
BIT COUNT = ?
Year developed: 2017
DEVELOPED BY = Apple
MAX FILE SIZE = ?
Max File Size: 2 EB | §§§§§§§§§§§§§§§§ |
SD CARD MINI TABEL :
| ABBREVIATION: | MEANING: |
| SD | Secure Digital Card
Storage Capacity = 0 - 2 GB |
| SDHC | Secure Digital High Capacity Card
Storage Capacity = 4 GB - 32 GB |
| SDXC | Secure Digital Extended Capacity Card
Storage Capacity = 32 GB - 2 TB |
| SDUC | Secure Digital Ultra Capacity Card
Storage Capacity = 2 TB - 128 TB |
| CARD TYPE: | DEVICE COMPATIBILITY: |
SD
SDHC
SDXC | SD
SD SDHC
SD SDHC SDXC |
Megabits per second 1Mb/s = 0.125 MB/s Megabytes per second
Megabits per second 8 Mb/s = 1 MB/s Megabytes per second
Megabits per second 90 Mb/s = 11.25 MB/sMegabytes per second |
For greater information on SD Cards see my page
What Do The Markings On An SD Card Mean
COMMON COLOUR CODES :
| Decimal | Binary (RGB) | Hexadecimal |
| Black | 0, 0, 0 | #000000 |
| Blue | 0, 0, 255 | #0000FF |
| Cyan | 0, 255, 255 | #00FFFF |
| Green | 0, 255, 0 | #00FF00 |
| Magenta | 255, 0, 255 | #FF00FF |
| Red | 255, 0, 0 | #FF0000 |
| White | 255, 255, 255 | #FFFFFF |
| Yellow | 255, 255, 0 | #FFFF00 |
WINDOWS APP SHORTCUTS :
| Command | Action |
| appwiz.cpl | Add Remove Programs |
| dsa.msc | Active Directory |
| gpedit.cpl | Group policy editor |
| inetcpl.cpl | Open MS IE Internet Control Panel file |
| lusrmgr.msc | Local Users and Groups |
| msconfig | Windows Configuration Manager |
| mstcs | Remote Desktop Connection |
| ncpa.cpl | Change Adaptor Settings |
| services.msc | Services snap-in (Foe MMC) |
| sysdm.cpl | System Properties |
| mmc | Microsoft Management Console |
CPU INFORMATION :
| CPU | INFO |
| Chip Set | A set of electronic components in an integrated circuit
known as a "Data Flow Management System" that
manages the data flow between the processor,
memory and peripherals |
| BIOS | Basic
Input
Output
System
BIOS is the program (in the form of firmware) a
computer's microprocessor uses to start the computer
system after it is powered on. Also known as the System
BIOS, ROM BIOS, BIOS ROM or PC BIOS), the BIOS
firmware is used to perform hardware initialization
during the booting process (power-on startup), and to
provide runtime services for operating systems and
programs. The BIOS firmware comes pre-installed on a
personal computer's system board, and it is the first
software to run when powered on. The name originates
from the Basic Input/Output System used in the CP/M
operating system in 1975. The BIOS originally
proprietary to the IBM PC has been reverse engineered
by some companies (such as Phoenix Technologies)
looking to create compatible systems. The interface of
that original system serves as a de facto standard. |
| CMOSE | Complementary
Metal
Oxide
Semiconductor
Field
Effect
Transistor
To understand the CMOS, we must first understand the
BIOS. The BIOS is the program that starts a computer
up and the CMOS is where the BIOS stores the date,
time, and system configuration details it needs to start
the computer. The CMOS is a type of memory
technology, but most people use the term to refer to
the chip that stores variable data for startup. A CMOS
consists of a pair of semiconductors connected to a
common secondary voltage such that they operate in
an opposite (complimentary) fashion. Thus, when one
transistor is turned on, the other is turned off,
and vice versa.
Some of the advantages of CMOS:
High noise immunity.
Reduced complexity of the circuit.
Very low static power consumption.
A higher density of logic functions on a chip. |
| COS-MOS | Complementary
Symmetry
Metal
Oxide
Semiconductor
See CMOS. |
| NMOS | N-type
Metal
Oxide
Semiconductor
Logic
N-type (-) MOSFETs are used to implement logic gates
and other digital circuits. These nMOS transistors
operate by creating an inversion layer in a p-type
transistor body. This inversion layer, called the
n-channel, can conduct electrons between n-type
"source" and "drain" terminals. The n-channel is
created by applying voltage to the third terminal,
called the gate. Like other MOSFETs, nMOS
transistors have four modes of operation: cut-off
(or subthreshold), triode, saturation
(sometimes called active), and velocity saturation. |
| Numeric Coprocessor | The math coprocessor was an optional add-on for
the Intel 8086, 80386 and 80486 processors that
allowed computers to perform faster mathematical
calculations, increasing its overall performance. |
| IO Processor | Input
Output
Processor |
| Northbridge | A northbridge or host bridge is one of the two chips
in the core logic chipset architecture on a PC
motherboard, the other being the southbridge.
Unlike the southbridge, the northbridge is connected
directly to the CPU via the front side bus and is thus
responsible for tasks that require the highest performance |
| Southbridge | The southbridge is one of the two chips in the core
logic chipset on a personal computer motherboard,
the other being the northbridge. The southbridge
typically implements the slower capabilities of the
motherboard in a northbridge / southbridge chipset
computer architecture |
TRANSISTORS :
| Abbreviation | Meaning |
| BJT | Bipolar
Junction
Transistor |
| Vbb | Base Supply Voltage |
| Vee | Emitter Supply Voltage |
| Vcc | Collector Supply Voltage
AKA
Voltage Common Collector |
| MOSFET | Metal
Oxide
Semiconductor
Field
Effect
Transistor |
| Vdd | Drain Supply Voltage |
| Vss | Source Supply Voltage |
| Vgg | Following the above convention, it should be "Gate".
However, as "Vgg" does not exist, instead we use
"Ground" (Gnd), "Common" or "0" (Zero) voltes. |
| FinFET | Fin
Field
Effect
Transistor |
| JFET | Junction
Gate
Field
Effect
Transistor |
| MuGFET | Multi
Gate
Field
Effect
Transistor |
| TFT | Thin
Film
Transistor |
| JFET To BJT | Comparison |
| JFET | BJP |
| Gate, ( G ) | Base, ( B ) |
| Drain, ( D ) | Collector, ( C ) |
| Source, ( S ) | Emitter, ( E ) |
| Gate Supply, ( VG ) | Base Supply, ( VB ) |
| Drain Supply, ( VDD ) | Collector Supply, ( VCC ) |
| Drain Current, ( ID ) | Collector Current, ( IC ) |
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS POWER SUPPLY PIN :
| | BJT | FET |
| Positive Supply Voltage | Vcc / Vbb V+ | Vdd Vs+ |
| Negative Supply Voltage | Vee V- | Vss Vs- |
| Ground | Gnd (0) | Gnd (0) |
ELECTRONICS MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :
| Abbreviation | MEANING |
| IC | Integrated Circuit / Monolithic Integrated Circuit:
An IC or a microchip is a set of electronic circuits
on one small flat piece (or "chip") of
semiconductor material, usually silicon.
Large numbers of tiny MOSFETs (See MOSFET)
integrate into a small chip. This results in circuits
that are orders of magnitude smaller, faster, and
less expensive than those constructed of discrete
electronic components. The IC's mass production
capability, reliability, and building block approach
to integrated circuit design has ensured the rapid
adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs
using discrete transistors. ICs are now used in
virtually all electronic equipment and have
revolutionized the world of electronics.
Computers, mobile phones, and other digital
home appliances are now inextricable parts of the
structure of modern societies, made possible by
the small size and low cost of ICs such as modern
computer processors and microcontrollers. |
| I²C / I2C / IIC | Inter-Integrated Circuit
It is pronounced as "eye-squared-C"
I²C is a synchronous, multi-master, multi-slave,
packet switched, single-ended, serial
communication bus invented in 1982 by Philips
Semiconductors. It is widely used for attaching
lower speed peripheral ICs to processors and
microcontrollers in short distance, intra-board
communication. |
| ASIC | Application Specific Integrated Circuit
ASIC is an integrated circuit (IC) chip customized
for a particular use, rather than intended for
general purpose use. For example, a chip
designed to run in a digital voice recorder or a
high efficiency bitcoin miner is an ASIC.
Application specific standard product (ASSP)
chips are intermediate between ASICs and
industry standard integrated circuits like the
7400 series or the 4000 series.
ASIC chips are typically fabricated using MOS
technology (See MOS), as MOS integrated circuit.
|
| TTL | Transistor Transistor Logic:
Transistor to transistor logic is a logic
family built from bipolar junction
transistors. Its name signifies that
transistors perform both the logic
function and the amplifying function,
as opposed to resistor transistor
logic or diode transistor logic. |
| RTL | Resistor Transistor Logic:
Resistor transistor logic is a class of digital
circuits built using resistors as the input
network and bipolar junction transistors
(BJTs) as switching devices. RTL is the
earliest class of transistorized digital logic
circuit used; other classes include diode
transistor logic (DTL) and transistor
transistor logic (TTL). RTL circuits were first
constructed with discrete components, but
in 1961 it became the first digital logic family
to be produced as a monolithic integrated
circuit. RTL integrated circuits were used in
the Apollo Guidance Computer, whose
design was begun in 1961 and which
first flew in 1966 |
| TRL | Transistor Resistor Logic:
See RTL |
| DTL | Diode Transistor Logic :
Diode transistor logic (DTL) is a class of digital
circuits that is the direct ancestor of transistor
transistor logic. It is called so because the logic
gating function (e.g., AND) is performed by a
diode network and the amplifying function is
performed by a transistor
(in contrast with RTL and TTL). |
| Flip-flop | Flip-Flop
In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that
has two stable states and can be used to store
state information, a bistable multivibrator.
The circuit can be made to change state by
signals applied to one or more control inputs
and will have one or two outputs. It is the basic
storage element in sequential logic. Flip-flops
and latches are fundamental building blocks
of digital electronics systems used in computers,
communications, and many other types of systems. |
| UART | Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter
is a computer hardware device for asynchronous
serial communication in which the data format
and transmission speeds are configurable.
It sends data bits one by one, from the least
significant to the most significant, framed by start
and stop bits so that precise timing is handled by
the communication channel. The electric signaling
levels are handled by a driver circuit external to
the UART. Two common signal levels are RS-232,
a 12 volt system, and RS-485, a 5-volt system.
It was one of the earliest computer communication
devices, used to attach teletypewriters for an
operator console. It was also an early hardware
system for the Internet. |
| DSP | Digital Signal Processing
Digital signal processing is the use of digital
processing, such as by computers or more
specialized digital signal processors, to
perform a wide variety of signal
processing operations. |
| Vpp | Peak To Peak Voltage:
The peak value is the highest voltage that
the waveform will ever reach, like the peak
is the highest point on a mountain. |
| RMS | Root Mean Square:
The RMS value, is the effective value of the
total waveform. It is equal to the level of the
DC signal that would provide the same average
power as the periodic signal. |
| ESD | Electrostatic Discharge:
A sudden flow of electricity between two
electrically charged objects, an ESD occurs
when differently charged objects are brought
close together or when the dielectric between
them breaks down, often creating a visible spark. |
| VDP / VDC (Usually a Chip) | Video Display Processor / Controller:
A video display controller or VDC AKA
"Display Engine" or "Display Interface", is an
integrated circuit that is the main component
in a video signal generator. A device responsible
for the production of TV video signals or in a
computer or a computer games system. Some
VDCs also generate an audio signal, but that is not
their main function. VDCs were used in the home
computers of the 1980s and also in some early
video picture systems.
Within the MSX users community, the VDP means
Video Display Processor, it's the term used for the
video chip built into the MSX system. The below
video chips are used on the MSX system:
Texas Instruments TMS9918 family of VDP chips
Toshiba T6950
Yamaha YM2220
Yamaha V9938
Yamaha V9958
Yamaha V9990
Generally, the VDP is a separate chip, but a few
MSX1 machines have the Toshiba T6950
integrated in the Toshiba T7937 MSX-Engine.
Besides these VDP's, there is also a
Video Display Controller (VDC), the Yamaha
99C37-F used only in the NTT Captain
Multi Station computer |
| BGA (Chip) | Ball Grid Array / Ball Gate Array:
A type of surface mounted packaging (SMD)
used for integrated circuits.BGAs are used to
permanently mount devices such as
microprocessors. A BGA can provide more
interconnection pins than a standard dual in line
(DIP)or flat package. The whole bottom surface of
the device can be used, instead of just the
perimeter. The traces connecting the package's
leads to the wires or balls, which connect the die
to the package are also shorter than with a
perimeter only type, leading to better
performance at high speeds. |
| FPGA (Chip) | Field Programmable Gate Array:
FPGA is an integrated circuit (IC) designed to be
configured by a customer or a designer after
manufacturing, hence the term field
programmable. FPGA configuration is generally
specified using a hardware description language
(HDL), similar to that used for an application
specific integrated circuit (ASIC). Circuit diagrams
were previously used to specify the configuration,
but this is increasingly rare due to the advent of
electronic design automation tools.
FPGAs contain an array of programmable logic
blocks, and a hierarchy of reconfigurable
interconnects allowing blocks to be wired together.
Logic blocks can be configured to perform complex
combinational functions, or act as simple logic gates
like AND and XOR. In most FPGAs, logic blocks also
include memory elements, which may be simple
flip flops or more complete blocks of memory.
Many FPGAs can be reprogrammed to implement
different logic functions, allowing flexible
reconfigurable computing as performed in computer
software. FPGAs have a remarkable role in
embedded system development due to their
capability to start system software (SW) development
simultaneously with hardware (HW), enable system
performance simulations at a very early phase of the
development, and allow various system partitioning
(SW and HW) trials and iterations before final freezing
of the system architecture. The FPGA industry
sprouted from programmable read only memory
(PROM) and programmable logic devices (PLDs).
PROMs and PLDs both had the option of being
programmed in batches in a factory or in the field
(field programmable). However, programmable logic
was hard-wired between
logic gates |
| PLD | Programmable Logic Device
A programmable logic device (PLD) is an
electronic component used to build reconfigurable
digital circuits. Unlike integrated circuits (IC) which
consist of logic gates and have a fixed function,
a PLD has an undefined function at the time of
manufacture. Before the PLD can be used in a circuit
it must be programmed (reconfigured) by using a
specialized program.
GAL = Generic Array Logic
PAL = Programmable Array Logic
PLA = Programmable Logic Array
FPGA = Field Programmable Gate Array
CPLDs = Complex Programmable Logic Device
EPLDs = Erasable Programmable Logic Device |
| SID (Chip) | Sound Interface Device:
The SID is a sound chip used primarily in the
VC 10, C64 and C128 and now a number of
sound related project kits etc. The chip
combines analogue and digital circuitry, that
cannot be emulated with 100% fidelity even
today. The intention of its designer (Bob Yannes)
was to implement a real subtractive synthesis chip,
totally different from all other home computers
sound devices of its time. The SID can be
programmed in BASIC or machine language,
using a machine language monitor or an
assembler package e.g. Merlin or the
Commodore Assembler, etc. |
| RTL (RTL SDR) (Chip set) | Realtek L2832U:
The Realtek RTL2832U chipset was a popular
choice for digital video broadcast (DVB-T)
receivers, whose original purpose was to
receive video. It was discovered that these
could be hacked and turned into wideband
SDR receivers. |
| SDR (RTL SDR) | Software Defined Radio:
A radio communication system where
components that have been traditionally
implemented in hardware
(e.g. mixers, filters, amplifiers, modulators /
demodulators, detectors, etc.) are instead
implemented by means of software on a
computer, tablet, mobile phone or
embedded system. |
| SWR | Standing Wave Ratio:
In the field of radio engineering and
telecommunications, SWR is a measure of
impedance matching of loads to the
characteristic impedance of a transmission
line or waveguide. |
| SMA Connector | SubMiniature Version A
SMA connectors are semi precision coaxial
RF connectors that were developed in the
1960s as a minimal connector interface for
coaxial cable with a screw type couplin
mechanism. The connector has a 50 Ω
impedance. SMA was originally designed for
use from DC (0 Hz) to 12 GHz, however this
has been extended over time and variants
are available to 18 GHz and 26.5 GHz.
There are also mechanically compatible
connectors such as the K-connector which
operate up to 40 GHz. The SMA connector
is most commonly used in microwave
systems, hand held radio and mobile
telephone antennas and, more recently,
with WiFi antenna systems and USB software
defined radio dongles. It is also commonly
used in radio astronomy, particularly at
higher frequencies (5 GHz+). |
| BFO | Beat Frequency Oscillator
In a radio receiver a BFO AKA a
beat frequency oscillator or BFO is a
dedicated oscillator used to create an audio
frequency signal from Morse code
radiotelegraphy (CW) transmissions to make
them audible. The signal from the BFO is
mixed with the received signal to create a
heterodyne or beat frequency which is heard
as a tone in the speaker. BFOs are also used
to demodulate single-sideband (SSB) signals,
making them intelligible, by essentially
restoring the carrier that was suppressed at
the transmitter. BFOs are sometimes included
in communications receivers designed for
short wave listeners; they are almost always
found in communication receivers for
amateur radio, which often receive CW
and SSB signals. |
| Heterodyne | het·ero·dyne
Etymology:
heter- + -dyne,
A modification of Greek dynamis power
A heterodyne is a signal frequency that is
created by combining or mixing two other
frequencies using a signal processing
technique called heterodyning.
Heterodyning is used to shift one frequency
range into another, new frequency range,
and is also involved in the processes of
modulation and demodulation.
The two input frequencies are combined
in a nonlinear signal processing device
such as a vacuum tube, transistor, or
diode, usually called a mixer |
| Superhet | Superheterodyne Receiver
A superheterodyne receiver often
shortened to superhet, is a type of radio
receiver that uses frequency mixing to
convert a received signal to a fixed
intermediate frequency (IF) which can be
more conveniently processed than the
original carrier frequency. Virtually all
modern radio receivers use the
superheterodyne principle. |
| RDF | Radio Direction Finding
RDF is the measurement of the direction from
which a received signal was transmitted.
This can refer to radio or other forms of
wireless communication, including radar signals
detection and monitoring (ELINT/ESM).
By combining the direction information from two
or more suitably spaced receivers
(or a single mobile receiver), the source of a
transmission may be located via triangulation.
Radio direction finding is used in the navigation
of ships and aircraft, to locate emergency
transmitters for search and rescue, for tracking
wildlife, and to locate illegal or interfering
transmitters. |
| RADAF | Radio Detection And Ranging
Radar is a detection system that uses radio
waves to determine the distance (range),
angle, or velocity of objects. It can be used
to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided
missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations,
and terrain. A radar system consists of a
transmitter producing electromagnetic waves
in the radio or microwaves domain,
a transmitting antenna, a receiving antenna
(often the same antenna is used for
transmitting and receiving) and a receiver and
processor to determine the properties of the
object(s). Radio waves (pulsed or continuous)
from the transmitter reflect off the object and
return to the receiver, giving information about
the object's location and speed. |
| LIDA | Light Detection And Ranging
- AKA -
Laser Imaging Detection And Ranging
Lidar is a method for determining ranges
(variable distance) by targeting an object with a
laser and measuring the time for the reflected
light to return to the receiver. Lidar can also be
used to make digital 3-D representations of
areas on the earth's surface and ocean floor,
due to differences in laser return times, and by
varying laser wavelengths. It has terrestrial,
airborne, and mobile applications. Lidar is an
acronym of "light detection and ranging" or
"laser imaging, detection, and ranging", lidar is
often called 3D laser scanning, a special
combination of a 3D scanning and laser
scanning. Lidar is commonly used to make high
resolution maps, with applications in surveying,
geodesy, geomatics, archaeology, geography,
geology, geomorphology, seismology, forestry,
atmospheric physics, laser guidance, airborne
laser swath mapping (ALSM), and laser altimetry.
The technology is also used in control and
navigation for some autonomous cars and for
he helicopter Ingenuity on its record setting flights
over the terrain of Mars. |
| FASOR | Frequency Addition Source Of Optical Radiation
The acronym FASOR is used for a certain type of
guide star laser deployed at US Air Force
Research Laboratory facilities SOR and AMOS.
The laser light is produced in a sum frequency
generation process from two solid state laser
sources that operate at different wavelengths.
The frequencies of the sources add directly to
a summed frequency. Thus, if the source
wavelengths are λ1 and λ2, the resulting
wavelength is λ= (1/λ1 + 1/λ2) -1.
Application, the FASOR is used for laser guide
star experiments. It is tuned to the D2a
hyperfine component of the sodium D line and
used to excite sodium atoms in the mesospheric
upper atmosphere. The FASOR consists of two
single frequency injection locked Nd:YAG lasers
close to 1064 and 1319 nm that are both
resonant in a cavity containing a lithium triborate
(LBO) crystal, which sums the frequencies
yielding 589.159 nm light. |
| IF | Intermediate Frequency
The use of IF coils and interstage coupling
transformers were a major feature of vacuum
tube based receivers. Both served the dual
purpose of impedance matching and frequency
selectivity. IF amplifier transformers are simply
tunable inductors, usually with an integral fixed
capacitor, and are typically used inside cheaper
transistor radios. Mostly they are used as
"synchronously tuned filters" because each stage
is coupled by an active device. |
| WEEE | Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive
(WEEE Directive) is the European Community
Directive 2012/19/EU on waste electrical and
electronic equipment (WEEE) which, together
with the RoHS Directive 2011/65/EU (See below),
became European Law in February 2003.
The WEEE Directive set collection, recycling and
recovery targets for all types of electrical goods,
with a minimum rate of 4 kilograms (9 lb) per
head of population per annum recovered for
recycling by 2009. The RoHS Directive set
restrictions upon European manufacturers as
to the material content of new electronic
equipment placed on the market. |
| ROHS | Restriction Of Hazardous Substances Directive
Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive
2002/95/EC (RoHS 1), short for Directive on
the restriction of the use of certain hazardous
substances in electrical and electronic
equipment was adopted in February 2003 by
the European Union. The RoHS 1 directive
took effect on 1 July 2006, and is required to
be enforced and became law in each
member state. This directive restricts
(with exceptions) the use of hazardous
materials in the manufacture of various
types of electronic and electrical equipment.
It is closely linked with the Waste Electrical
and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE)
2002/96/EC (now superseded) which sets
collection, recycling and recovery targets for
electrical goods and is part of a legislative
initiative to solve the problem of huge
amounts of toxic electronic waste.
The RoHS Directive set restrictions upon
European manufacturers as to the
material content of new electronic
equipment placed on the market. |
DECIBEL :
| dB | Power Ratio | Amplitude Ratio |
| 100 | 10000000000 | 100000 |
| 90 | 1000000000 | 31623 |
| 80 | 100000000 | 10000 |
| 70 | 10000000 | 3162 |
| 60 | 1000000 | 1000 |
| 50 | 100000 | 316.2 |
| 40 | 10000 | 100 |
| 30 | 1000 | 31.62 |
| 20 | 100 | 10 |
| 10 | 10 | 3.162 |
| 6 | 3.981 ≈ 4 | 1.995 ≈ 2 |
| 3 | 1.995 ≈ 2 | 1.413 ≈ √2 |
| 1 | 1.259 | 1.122 |
| 0 | 1 | 1 |
| -1 | 0.794 | 0.891 |
| -3 | 0.501 ≈ 1⁄2 | 0.708 ≈ √1⁄2 |
| -6 | 0.251 ≈ 1⁄4 | 0.501 ≈ 1⁄2 |
| -10 | 0.1 | 0.3162 |
| -20 | 0.01 | 0.1 |
| -30 | 0.001 | 0.03162 |
| -40 | 0.0001 | 0.01 |
| -50 | 0.00001 | 0.003162 |
| -60 | 0.000001 | 0.001 |
| -70 | 0.0000001 | 0.0003162 |
| -80 | 0.00000001 | 0.0001 |
| -90 | 0.000000001 | 0.00003162 |
| -100 | 0.0000000001 | 0.00001 |
An example scale showing power ratios x, amplitude ratios √x, and dB
equivalents 10 log10 x. The decibel (symbol: dB) is a relative unit of
measurement corresponding to one tenth of a bel (B).
dBm To Watt, Volt RMS :
| dBm | Watt | Volt (50Ω) | Volt (75Ω) |
| -140 | 0.01 fW | 22.361 nV | 27.386 nV |
| -139 | 0.013 fW | 25.089 nV | 30.728 nV |
| -138 | 0.016 fW | 28.15 nV | 34.477 nV |
| -137 | 0.02 fW | 31.585 nV | 38.684 nV |
| -136 | 0.025 fW | 35.439 nV | 43.404 nV |
| -135 | 0.032 fW | 39.764 nV | 48.7 nV |
| -134 | 0.04 fW | 44.615 nV | 54.643 nV |
| -133 | 0.05 fW | 50.059 nV | 61.31 nV |
| -132 | 0.063 fW | 56.167 nV | 68.791 nV |
| -131 | 0.079 fW | 63.021 nV | 77.185 nV |
| -130 | 0.1 fW | 70.711 nV | 86.603 nV |
| -129 | 0.126 fW | 79.339 nV | 97.17 nV |
| -128 | 0.158 fW | 89.019 nV | 109.026 nV |
| -127 | 0.2 fW | 99.881 nV | 122.329 nV |
| -126 | 0.251 fW | 112.069 nV | 137.256 nV |
| -125 | 0.316 fW | 125.743 nV | 154.004 nV |
| -124 | 0.398 fW | 141.089 nV | 172.795 nV |
| -123 | 0.501 fW | 158.301 nV | 193.879 nV |
| -122 | 0.631 fW | 177.617 nV | 217.536 nV |
| -121 | 0.794 fW | 199.29 nV | 244.079 nV |
| -120 | 1 fW | 223.607 nV | 273.861 nV |
| -119 | 1.259 fW | 250.891 nV | 307.277 nV |
| -118 | 1.585 fW | 281.504 nV | 344.771 nV |
| -117 | 1.995 fW | 315.853 nV | 386.839 nV |
| -116 | 2.512 fW | 354.393 nV | 434.041 nV |
| -115 | 3.162 fW | 397.635 nV | 487.002 nV |
| -114 | 3.981 fW | 446.154 nV | 546.425 nV |
| -113 | 5.012 fW | 500.593 nV | 613.099 nV |
| -112 | 6.31 fW | 561.675 nV | 687.908 nV |
| -111 | 7.943 fW | 630.21 nV | 771.846 nV |
| -110 | 10 fW | 707.107 nV | 866.025 nV |
| -109 | 12.589 fW | 793.387 nV | 971.696 nV |
| -108 | 15.849 fW | 890.195 nV | 1.09 ?V |
| -107 | 19.953 fW | 998.815 nV | 1.223 ?V |
| -106 | 25.119 fW | 1.121 ?V | 1.373 ?V |
| -105 | 31.623 fW | 1.257 ?V | 1.54 ?V |
| -104 | 39.811 fW | 1.411 ?V | 1.728 ?V |
| -103 | 50.119 fW | 1.583 ?V | 1.939 ?V |
| -102 | 63.096 fW | 1.776 ?V | 2.175 ?V |
| -101 | 79.433 fW | 1.993 ?V | 2.441 ?V |
| -100 | 100 fW | 2.236 ?V | 2.739 ?V |
| -99 | 125.893 fW | 2.509 ?V | 3.073 ?V |
| -98 | 158.489 fW | 2.815 ?V | 3.448 ?V |
| -97 | 199.526 fW | 3.159 ?V | 3.868 ?V |
| -96 | 251.189 fW | 3.544 ?V | 4.34 ?V |
| -95 | 316.228 fW | 3.976 ?V | 4.87 ?V |
| -94 | 398.107 fW | 4.462 ?V | 5.464 ?V |
| -93 | 501.187 fW | 5.006 ?V | 6.131 ?V |
| -92 | 630.957 fW | 5.617 ?V | 6.879 ?V |
| -91 | 794.328 fW | 6.302 ?V | 7.718 ?V |
| -90 | 1 pW | 7.071 ?V | 8.66 ?V |
| -89 | 1.259 pW | 7.934 ?V | 9.717 ?V |
| -88 | 1.585 pW | 8.902 ?V | 10.903 ?V |
| -87 | 1.995 pW | 9.988 ?V | 12.233 ?V |
| -86 | 2.512 pW | 11.207 ?V | 13.726 ?V |
| -85 | 3.162 pW | 12.574 ?V | 15.4 ?V |
| -84 | 3.981 pW | 14.109 ?V | 17.279 ?V |
| -83 | 5.012 pW | 15.83 ?V | 19.388 ?V |
| -82 | 6.31 pW | 17.762 ?V | 21.754 ?V |
| -81 | 7.943 pW | 19.929 ?V | 24.408 ?V |
| -80 | 10 pW | 22.361 ?V | 27.386 ?V |
| -79 | 12.589 pW | 25.089 ?V | 30.728 ?V |
| -78 | 15.849 pW | 28.15 ?V | 34.477 ?V |
| -77 | 19.953 pW | 31.585 ?V | 38.684 ?V |
| -76 | 25.119 pW | 35.439 ?V | 43.404 ?V |
| -75 | 31.623 pW | 39.764 ?V | 48.7 ?V |
| -74 | 39.811pW | 44.615 ?V | 54.643 ?V |
| -73 | 50.119 pW | 50.059 ?V | 61.31 ?V |
| -72 | 63.096 pW | 56.167 ?V | 68.791 ?V |
| -71 | 79.433 pW | 63.021 ?V | 77.185 ?V |
| -70 | 100 pW | 70.711 ?V | 86.603 ?V |
| -69 | 125.893 pW | 79.339 ?V | 97.17 ?V |
| -68 | 158.489 pW | 89.019 ?V | 109.026 ?V |
| -67 | 199.526 pW | 99.881 ?V | 122.329 ?V |
| -66 | 251.189 fW | 112.069 ?V | 137.256 ?V |
| -65 | 316.228 fW | 125.743 ?V | 154.004 ?V |
| -64 | 398.107 fW | 141.086 ?V | 172.795 ?V |
| -63 | 501.187 pW | 158.301 ?V | 193.879 ?V |
| -62 | 630.957 pW | 177.617 ?V | 217.536 ?V |
| -61 | 794.328 pW | 199.29 ?V | 244.079 ?V |
| -60 | 1 nW | 223.607 ?V | 273.861 ?V |
| -59 | 1.259 nW | 250.891 ?V | 307.277 ?V |
| -58 | 1.585 nW | 281.504 ?V | 344.771 ?V |
| -57 | 1.995 nW | 315.853 ?V | 386.839 ?V |
| -56 | 23512 nW | 354.393 ?V | 434.041 ?V |
| -55 | 3.162 nW | 397.635 ?V | 487.002 ?V |
| -54 | 3.981nW | 446.154 ?V | 546.425 ?V |
| -53 | 5.012 nW | 500.593 ?V | 613.099 ?V |
| -52 | 6.31 nW | 561.675 ?V | 687.908 ?V |
| -51 | 7.943 nW | 630.21 ?V | 771.846 ?V |
| -50 | 10 nW | 707.107 ?V | 866.025 ?V |
| -49 | 12.589 nW | 793.387 ?V | 971.696 ?V |
| -48 | 15.849 nW | 890.195 ?V | 1.09 mV |
| -47 | 19.953 nW | 998.815 ?V | 1.223 mV |
| -46 | 25.119 nW | 1.121 mV | 1.373 mV |
| -45 | 31.623 W | 1.257 mV | 1.54 mV |
| -44 | 39.811 nW | 1.411 mV | 1.728 mV |
| -43 | 50.119 nW | 1.583 mV | 1.939 mV |
| -42 | 63.096 nW | 1.776 mV | 2.175 mV |
| -41 | 79.433 nW | 1.993 mV | 2.441 mV |
| -40 | 100 nW | 2.236 mV | 2.739 mV |
| -39 | 125.893 nW | 2.509 mV | 3.073 mV |
| -38 | 158.489 nW | 2.815 mV | 3.448 mV |
| -37 | 199.526 nW | 3.159 mV | 3.868 mV |
| -36 | 251.189 nW | 3.544 mV | 4.34 mV |
| -35 | 316.228 nW | 3.976 mV | 4.87 mV |
| -34 | 398.107 nW | 4.462 mV | 5.464 mV |
| -33 | 501.187 nW | 5.006 mV | 6.131 mV |
| -32 | 630.957 nW | 5.617 mV | 6.879 mV |
| -31 | 794.328 nW | 6.302 mV | 7.718 mV |
| -30 | 1 ?W | 7.071 mV | 8.66 mV |
| -29 | 1.259 ?W | 7.934 mV | 9.717 mV |
| -28 | 1.585 ?W | 8.902 mV | 10.903 mV |
| -27 | 1.995 ?W | 9.988 mV | 12.233 mV |
| -26 | 2.512 ?W | 11.207 mV | 13.726 mV |
| -25 | 3.162 ?W | 12.574 mV | 15.4 mV |
| -24 | 3.981 ?W | 14.109 mV | 17.279 mV |
| -23 | 5.012 ?W | 15.83 mV | 19.388 mV |
| -22 | 6.31 ?W | 17.762 mV | 21.754 mV |
| -21 | 7.943 ?W | 19.929 mV | 24.408 mV |
| -20 | 10 ?W | 22.361 mV | 27.386 mV |
| -19 | 12.589 ?W | 25.089 mV | 30.728 mV |
| -18 | 15.849 ?W | 28.15 mV | 34.477 mV |
| -17 | 19.953 ?W | 31.585 mV | 38.684 mV |
| -16 | 25.119 ?W | 35.439 mV | 43.404 mV |
| -15 | 31.623 ?W | 39.764 mV | 48.7 mV |
| -14 | 39.811 ?W | 44.615 mV | 54.643 mV |
| -13 | 50.119 ?W | 50.059 mV | 61.31 mV |
| -12 | 63.096 ?W | 56.167 mV | 68.791 mV |
| -11 | 79.433 ?W | 63.021 mV | 77.185 mV |
| -10 | 100 ?W | 70.711 mV | 86.603 mV |
| -9 | 125.893 ?W | 79.339 mV | 97.17 mV |
| -8 | 158.489 ?W | 89.019 mV | 109.026 mV |
| -7 | 199.526 ?W | 99.881 mV | 122.329 mV |
| -6 | 251.189 ?W | 112.069 mV | 137.256 mV |
| -5 | 316.228 ?W | 125.743 mV | 154.004 mV |
| -4 | 398.107 ?W | 141.086 mV | 172.795 mV |
| -3 | 501.187 ?W | 158.301 mV | 193.879 mV |
| -2 | 630.957 ?W | 177.617 mV | 217.536 mV |
| -1 | 794.328 ?W | 199.29 mV | 244.079 mV |
| 0 | 1 mW | 223.607 mV | 273.861 mV |
| 1 | 1.259 mW | 250.891 mV | 307.277 mV |
| 2 | 1.585 mW | 281.504 mV | 344.771 mV |
| 3 | 1.995 W | 315.853 mV | 386.839 mV |
| 4 | 2.512 mW | 354.393 mV | 434.041 mV |
| 5 | 3.162 mW | 397.635 mV | 487.002 mV |
| 6 | 3.981 mW | 446.154 mV | 0.546 V |
| 7 | 5.012 mW | 0.501 V | 0.613 V |
| 8 | 6.31 mW | 0.562 V | 0.688 V |
| 9 | 7.943 mW | 0.63 V | 0.772 V |
| 10 | 10 mW | 0.707 V | 0.866 V |
| 11 | 12.589 mW | 0.793 V | 0.972 V |
| 12 | 15.849 mW | 0.89 V | 1.09 V |
| 13 | 19.953 mW | 0.999 V | 1.223 V |
| 14 | 25.119 mW | 1.121 V | 1.373 V |
| 15 | 31.623 mW | 1.257 V | 1.54 V |
| 16 | 39.811 mW | 1.411 V | 1.728 V |
| 17 | 50.119 mW | 1.583 V | 1.939 V |
| 18 | 63.096 mW | 1.776 V | 2.175 V |
| 19 | 79.433 mW | 1.993 V | 2.441 V |
| 20 | 100 mW | 2.236 V | 2.793 V |
| 21 | 125.893 mW | 2.509 V | 3.073 V |
| 22 | 158.489 mW | 2.815 V | 3.448 V |
| 23 | 199.526 mW | 3.159 V | 3.868 V |
| 24 | 251.189 mW | 3.544 V | 4.34 V |
| 25 | 316.228 mW | 3.976 V | 4.87 V |
| 26 | 398.107 mW | 4.462 V | 5.464 V |
| 27 | 0.501 W | 5.006 V | 6.131 V |
| 28 | 0.631 W | 5.617 V | 6.879 V |
| 29 | 0.794 W | 6.302 V | 7.718 V |
| 30 | 1 W | 7.071 V | 8.66 V |
| 31 | 1.259 W | 7.934 V | 9.717 V |
| 32 | 1.585 W | 8.902 V | 10.903 V |
| 33 | 1.995 W | 9.988 V | 12.233 V |
| 34 | 2.512 W | 11.207 V | 13.726 V |
| 35 | 3.162 W | 12.574 V | 15.4 V |
| 36 | 3.981 W | 14.109 V | 17.279 V |
| 37 | 5.012 W | 15.83 V | 19.388 V |
| 38 | 6.31 W | 17.762 V | 21.754 V |
| 39 | 7.943 W | 19.929 V | 24.408 V |
| 40 | 10 W | 22.361 V | 27.386 V |
| 41 | 12.589 W | 25.089 V | 30.728 V |
| 42 | 15.849 W | 28.15 V | 34.477 V |
| 43 | 19.953 W | 31.585 V | 38.684 V |
| 44 | 25.119 W | 35.439 V | 43.404 V |
| 45 | 31.623 W | 39.764 V | 48.7 V |
| 46 | 39.811 W | 44.615 V | 54.643 V |
| 47 | 50.119 W | 50.059 V | 61.31 V |
| 48 | 63.096 W | 56.167 V | 68.791 V |
| 49 | 79.433 W | 63.021 V | 77.185 V |
| 50 | 100 W | 70.711 V | 86.603 V |
| 51 | 125.893 W | 79.339 V | 97.17 V |
| 52 | 158.489 W | 89.019 V | 109.026 V |
| 53 | 199.526 W | 99.881 V | 122.329 V |
| 54 | 251.189 W | 112.069 V | 137.256 V |
| 55 | 316.228 W | 125.743 V | 154.004 V |
| 56 | 398.107 W | 141.086 V | 172.795 V |
| 57 | 501.187 W | 158.301 V | 193.879 V |
| 58 | 630.957 W | 177.617 V | 217.536 V |
| 59 | 794.328 W | 199.29 V | 244.079 V |
| 60 | 1 kW | 223.607 V | 273.861 V |
| 61 | 1.259 kW | 250.891 V | 307.277 V |
| 62 | 1.585 kW | 281.504 V | 344.771 V |
| 63 | 1.995 kW | 315.853 V | 386.839 V |
| 64 | 2.512 kW | 354.393 V | 434.041 V |
| 65 | 3.162 kW | 397.635 V | 487.002 V |
| 66 | 3.981 kW | 446.154 V | 546.425 V |
| 67 | 5.012 kW | 500.593 V | 613.099 V |
| 68 | 6.31 kW | 561.675 V | 687.908 V |
| 69 | 7.943 kW | 630.21 V | 0.772 kV |
| 70 | 10 kW | 0.707 kV | 0.866 kV |
| 71 | 12.589 kW | 0.793 kV | 0.972 V |
| 72 | 15.849 kW | 0.89 kV | 1.09 kV |
| 73 | 19.953 kW | 0.999 kV | 1.223 kV |
| 74 | 25.119 kW | 1.121 kV | 1.373 kV |
| 75 | 31.623 kW | 1.257 kV | 1.54 kV |
| 76 | 39.811 kW | 1.411 kV | 1.728 kV |
| 77 | 50.119 kW | 1.583 kV | 1.939 kV |
| 78 | 63.096 kW | 1.776 kV | 2.175 kV |
| 79 | 79.433 kW | 1.993 kV | 2.441 kV |
| 80 | 100 kW | 2.236 kV | 2.739 kV |
| 81 | 125.893 kW | 2.509 kV | 3.073 kV |
| 82 | 158.489 kW | 2.815 kV | 3.448 kV |
| 83 | 199.526 kW | 3.159 kV | 3.868 kV |
| 84 | 251.189 kW | 3.544 kV | 4.34 kV |
| 85 | 316.228 kW | 3.976 kV | 4.87 kV |
| 86 | 398.107 kW | 4.462 kV | 5.464 kV |
| 87 | 501.187 kW | 5.006 kV | 6.131 kV |
| 88 | 630.957 kW | 5.617 kV | 6.879 kV |
| 89 | 794.328 kW | 6.302 kV | 7.718 kV |
| 90 | 1 MW | 7.071 kV | 8.66 kV |
| 91 | 1.529 MW | 7.934 kV | 9.717 kV |
| 92 | 1.585 MW | 8.902 kV | 10.903 kV |
| 93 | 1.995 MW | 9.988 kV | 12.233 kV |
| 94 | 2.512 MW | 11.207 kV | 13.726 kV |
| 95 | 3.162 MW | 12.574 kV | 15.4 kV |
| 96 | 3.981 W | 14.109 kV | 17.279 kV |
| 97 | 5.012 MW | 15.83 kV | 19.388 kV |
| 98 | 6.31 MW | 17.762 kV | 21.754 kV |
| 99 | 7.943 MW | 19.929 kV | 24.408 kV |
| 100 | 10 MW | 22.361 kV | 27.386 kV |
| 101 | 12.589 MW | 25.089 kV | 30.728 kV |
| 102 | 15.849 MW | 28.15 kV | 34.477 kV |
| 103 | 19.953 MW | 31.585 kV | 38.684 kV |
| 104 | 25.119 MW | 35.439 kV | 43.404 kV |
| 105 | 31.623 MW | 39.764 kV | 48.7 kV |
| 106 | 39.811 MW | 44.615 kV | 54.643 kV |
| 107 | 50.119 MW | 50.059 kV | 61.31 kV |
| 108 | 63.096 MW | 56.167 kV | 68.791 kV |
| 109 | 79.433 MW | 63.021 kV | 77.185 kV |
| 110 | 100 MW | 70.711 kV | 86.603 kV |
| 111 | 125.893 MW | 79.339 kV | 97.17 kV |
| 112 | 158.489 MW | 89.019 V | 109.026 kV |
| 113 | 199.526 MW | 99.881 kV | 122.329 kV |
| 114 | 251.189 MW | 112.069 kV | 137.256 kV |
| 115 | 316.228 MW | 125.743 kV | 154.004 kV |
| 116 | 398.107 MW | 141.086 kV | 172.795 kV |
| 117 | 501.187 MW | 158.301 kV | 193.879 kV |
| 118 | 630.957 MW | 177.617 kV | 217.536 kV |
| 119 | 794.328 MW | 199.29 kV | 244.079 kV |
| 120 | 1000 MW | 223.607 kV | 273.861 kV |
|
